Abstract is an all-in-one workspace for government affairs in California

Abstract

Introduction Last chapter of this series. If you have followed up along these blog posts you are now fully capable of creating projects using the Object Oriented paradigm. I am glad you have followed all the sections and in this part, you are going to end up what you have started. In fact, now you will learn how to use abstract classes and several other less common feature of PHP such as reflection API and the singleton design pattern. Keep reading and you will see that as per a lot of other web developers, myself included, these resources will let you do that breakthrough you are looking for. Follow the series … This blog post is the sixth part of “ The complete guide to Object-Oriented Programming: Go from procedural programming to OOP expert in ” PHP If you did not read the other parts yet You can check the other blog posts following the links below , , , , and Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming Inheritance and Interfaces in PHP More Interfaces and Polymorphism Visibility and Static keyword Constructor and Magic methods Abstract Classes and Extra bits Table of Content Abstract classes Method chaining Autoloading Anonymous classes Reflection API Singleton Abstract Classes Abstract classes are very similar to interfaces but they have different rules that a web developer need to be aware of. The definition is quite straightforward, basically, an abstract class is a class that contains abstract methods, Abstract methods are methods that have been declared but not implemented in the code. This kind of classes cannot be constructed as an object, in fact, they need to be extended. A ‘normal’ class that extends an abstract one must implement all methods that are inside the parent. Something to notice is that a child class must define the abstract methods with the same or less restrictive visibility, This means that if in the abstract class there is a protected method it can be implemented only as a public or protected. Another rule is that the number and type or required arguments need to be the same as the parameters. abstract

    abstract

    public

    {

        echo

    }

}

class

    public

    {

        return

    }

}

$myOffice

// This command will return “Building cannot be constructed”

$myOffice->getWindowsCount();

// This command will return 12 I have defined the Office class that extends the abstract class . Building I have implemented and changed its visibility from protected to public. getWindowsCount() There are no abstract methods within the class thus, I can construct an object from it. Office I have added a constructor inside the abstract class so that you will be aware of the fact the parent’s constructor is called when the object is instantiated. What is the difference between an interface and an abstract class? To sum up, Consider an interface as an empty shell. It has only signatures of the methods, which means the methods do not have a body. An interface does not do anything is just a pattern, a set of methods that you need to replicate. On the other hands, abstract classes are proper classes. Even though they look like interfaces the have some specific characteristics. You can specify their use by what they do by a given method name. Here is an example that highlights the differences between the two: interface

{

     public

     public

}

class

{

    public

    public

    {

        echo

    }

    public

    {

        return

    }

} In here we are saying all the Building should look like this than is up to the class to change the functionality. Office abstract class Building{public $windows;public function getWindowsCount(){return $this->windows;}abstract public function build();} class Office extends Building{public function build(){echo “Office built”;}} In an abstract class instead, we are saying that all the Building must have . getWindowsCount() Then we say that the method can be different, so we obligate the class to provide the implementation according to its needs. build() Office Extra / Bonus We have almost finished here with this introduction to Object Oriented in PHP, programming Lot’s of information has been shared and I hope you understood all of it (if not just write your question below). However, there are a few things that have been just quickly mentioned and I would love to go deeper and give you a more wide comprehension on this topic. Method chaining Method chaining is an OOP technique that permits the programmer to perform several different but connected actions in a sequential way. Let’s break down this sentence,“Perform different actions“ means calling different methods or functions; “ ” can be translated into actions related to the same object or instance of the class; Perform connected actions “ ” simply suggest that the methods are called one after another. In a sequential way Here is an example that will clarify the concept: class

{

    public

    function

    {

        $this->message = "Foundation poured - ";

    }

    function

    {

        $this->message .= "framing, plumbing, electrical and HVAC completed -";

        return

    }

    function

    {

        $this->message .= "interior and exterior completed";

        return

    }

    function

    {

        return

    }

}

$myHome

echo Here you go, All the method of the class have one trait in common all of them return the object itself via the use of the keyword , Building $this If you need to brush up your memory I have explained what the keyword does in the . $this introduction to Object-Oriented Programming The last command is chaining down all the methods of the class necessary in order to build up our sentence. The outcome of the last command will look like this: “Foundation poured — framing, plumbing, electrical and HVAC completed — interior and exterior completed”. This is so easy that you can implement this to your code straight away without any problem, just be careful to return the object. Autoloading Any class must be defined before you need to use it, forget to do so will result in an error thrown. Autoload alongside PSR-4 standards allows you to define them when a class is required. I am sure that I do not need to say that this is an incredibly important feature. In PHP autoloading is done by the that accept a function as a parameter, spl_autoload_register() This is quite out-topic and just to explain how it works in detail I will need to write another article, so I will just give you an understandable example: Given that the class you want to autoload is within the “classes/” path, here is what you would do. This is more or less what happens behind the scene of most of the PHP frameworks out there. function

    include

}

spl_autoload_register(myAutoloader); spl_autoload_register has two more parameters, the second is a boolean and defines if the need to throw exceptions when the autoload_function cannot be registered, spl_autoload_register the third parameter is boolean as well and if true it will prepend the autoloader rather then attaching it. If an error occurred and the function was not able to find the specified class, it will throw a fatal error. Anonymous classes Wouldn’t be great if PHP allowed the web developer to create and instantiate objects on the fly? The release of PHP 7 included this present to the list of its features. $myAnonymousBuilding

{

    public

    {

        echo

    }

} Cool, right? Notice how easy is to implement this class inline and that it can even accept parameters like a normal class. The code in the example will output the string “a new class has been constructed in Main Street”. The main use of an anonymous class is the case you need to extend a named class. If, for instance, you will need to override properties or methods, instead of declaring it you can just create an in-line implementation in the same workflow you are currently having. Reflection API Reflection is a very useful feature that has been introduced with the release of PHP 5.0 and became a standard later on 5.3. This API permits you to examine PHP elements and fetch information about them at runtime. For me, one of the most useful places to use reflection API is during automated testing, in specific during PHP Unit. For example, when testing the values of private property in classes you can entree the properties via the API and then make assertion according to the test. There are different reflection classes, each of them allows you to inspect different types of variables. Here are some classes: ReflectionClass ReflectionObject ReflectionMethod ReflectionFunction ReflectionProperty Below a quick example of how the ReflectionClass is used: $ReflectionObject

print_r($ReflectionObject->getMethods()); This example will output an array of all the methods available within the Building class. The parameter passed to the ReflectionClass can be of two types, either a string with the name of the class or a true instance of the class itself. Each of the reflection classes has few methods that allow you to retrieve different information about the element you are inspecting. Singleton Any self-respecting web developer will encounter design patterns in its way to master the programming art sooner or later. Those patterns are nothing more than established methods that solve problems in a predefined way. 99% of PHP framework use them in order to increase the performances and the quality of the code. If you have never heard the words design pattern here is your shot. I want to introduce you the easiest among them all. We are going to use again our imaginary city, we have had several etc, Buildings, Offices, Schools What about the city hall? the mayor needs to keep on eye on all these classes and instantiation and method and properties. In a city, there is only one mayor and he works in only one building the city hall. There cannot be more that one city hall in a city. Well… How do we add this rule in programming? Singleton class cityHall{private static $instance = null;private function __construct(){...}public static function getInstance(){if (self::$instance == null){self::$instance = new Singleton();}return self::$instance;}} Here is it, this is an implementation of the Singleton design pattern. How does it actually work? As you can see the visibility of the constructor is set to private it blocks the creation of the object. In order to create an instance of the class, you need to invoke the static method . getInstance() It checks if the instance has been already created if not, it creates a new instance with the command self::$instance = new Singleton(); Otherwise, it just returns the object already created. The result is that in this case, you are always going to have only one single cityHall in all your program. Where to use the Singleton design pattern in a real case? Singleton is very easy but it can also become problematic to deal with, think at this design pattern whenever you must have a single instance of a class. and it has to be one in a really long term. An easy implementation could be when creating a database class to connect a DB to the code, in the majority of the cases you are going to have only one database per project. This is the perfect use for it. Conclusion The full version of “The complete guide to Object-Oriented Programming” in an all-in-one edition is available in a Kindle format on Amazon. If you have followed all the part of this article this has been quite a journey. You have realized the Object Oriented Programming or OOP is less difficult than it may seem from an outsider. The reality is that as web developers we love to use jargon. Properties, paramethers, interfaces, abstract classes, dependency injection. Those words can provide a headache very quickly. However, just keeping on going taking a little bit at a time you will find that apply these new knowledge is not only possible but easier than you thought. What’s the next step? If you understood the basic concept of this article you are ready to learn about PHP frameworks, There are plenty of them out there, and choose one of them can be overwhelming. Below there is a really deep comparison that I wrote that compare 24 of them, you will not find anything similar elsewhere. Guide to PHP frameworks. If you like this content and you are hungry for some more join the Facebook’s community in which we share info and news just like this one!

Abstract Classes and OOP extras

Abstract Digital Key in Primary Music Education It is well-known the difficulties in perception of any information, including musical one, cause strain of the main functional systems in the child’s body. Statistics and practice show that period of learning with standard music grammar is pulled for several years. At early stage of learning up to thirty percent of children lose their interest to the music subject and leave study. This situation is explained by the excessive load arising at the first contact of the child with a complex format learning the piano. In order to protect the health of parents and children in response to COVID -19 our  Neuromusic Lab proposes to replace face-to-face music training with distance deep learning.We would like to share a technological resource that can both reduce the risk of severe disease and simplify the methods of initial music training. Numeric Cognition 3345. 5432. 1123. 3020. 3345. 5432. 1123. 2010.  Ode to Joy Ludvig van Bethoven 3330. 3330. 3512. 3000. 4444. 4333. 3223. 2050. 3330. 3330. 3512. 3000. 4444. 4333. 3554. 2010.  Jingle Bells Formatted lessons give an equally valuable positive result, regardless of the platform, both interactive and online lesson. The above should not be understood as a rejection of generally accepted music teaching  in the classrooms but to protect the health of children and adolescents, online learning technology will be effective and successful. The future of effective learning is combined with pattern recognition technology. Digital Key Technology is designed to deepen our understanding of cognitive abilities and improve the child's memory capabilities. The Project " Reflection " is aimed at studying the somatosensory integration of nerve signals in the main functional systems of the child’s organism : the central nervous system, auditory , muscular , visual , using electrophysiology measurement techniques - ENG, EMG, EEG, Audiometry. Method EEG allows to research the difference of the integrated synaptic signals , to make the comparative diagrams of dynamics of initiated spikes while perception music characters and digital patterns, plus the time of fatigue of synaptic structures and cells - neurons of cortex is determined . Method  ENG - EMG completes one another, joints the visual analyzer with the neuro-motor function of fingers  and proves , from scientific point of view , the development of muscular fatigue in hands depending on the quantity of eyeballs’ fluctuations. Method Audiometry allows to research the increment of sensitivity to the functional sounds ( pure-tone ,high - low pitched, brain waves, beta range) plus the behavioral audiometry. Innovative technology raises the topic of the use of the Digital Key in Primary Music Education and the Music Industry. Read more: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/digital-key-initial-music-education-stepanov-sergey/

Distant Deep Teaching 

Bitcoin White Paper: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System [Full Text] By Satoshi Nakamoto

Packaging Steps and Experience Summary of Lentivirus

BLOCKCHAIN: Is it just a hype?

DUBAI, United Arab Emirates, November 21st, 2024/Chainwire/--Arcana Network is thrilled to announce the launch of the Arcana Wallet Beta, now available on the Chrome Store, setting a new standard in blockchain accessibility and user experience through its pioneering Chain Abstraction Protocol. Built as the first Externally Owned Account (EOA) wallet to leverage Chain Abstraction, Arcana Wallet enables a frictionless, multi-chain experience where users can spend assets across Ethereum, Base, Polygon, Arbitrum, and Optimism seamlessly, with 20+ new chains coming soon. The Chrome Extension wallet is available at www.arcana.network/wallet Unified Balance: Spend Your Assets Held Across Chains, in 1-click, Without Bridging Arcana Wallet offers a range of features designed to eliminate fragmentation and provide users with streamlined access to decentralized finance. Through Arcana’s Chain Abstraction protocol, users can now manage their aggregated USDC, USDT, and ETH balances across multiple networks, all in a single wallet interface, and spend these funds instantly on any supported chain without the need for bridging. “At Arcana, our goal is to reimagine blockchain usability by abstracting the complexities that come with multi-chain interactions. Arcana Wallet delivers an intuitive and effortless experience that allows users to engage with dApps across chains, without technical barriers” said Mayur Relekar, Founder & CEO of Arcana Network. Key Features of Arcana Wallet Unified Balances: Arcana Wallet aggregates assets into a single balance across supported chains, allowing seamless spending without bridging. For example, users holding USDT on Arbitrum and Optimism see a combined balance ready to spend on Polygon or Base.
EOA Wallet-Based Orchestration: Users can bring their existing EOA address or create a new one, ensuring self-custody. Funds stay in the user’s wallet, without locking up or requiring deposits to another address, maintaining asset security and cross-app accessibility.
Universal Address Accessibility: Unlike wallets needing app-specific setups, Arcana Wallet retains assets within one wallet, making them accessible across all apps—even those without native chain abstraction support.
Efficient Gas Payments: Gas fees can be auto-funded in stablecoins (USDT or USDC), eliminating the need to hold native tokens on each chain. Arcana’s optimised protocol keeps gas fees up to 10X lower than traditional solutions that use smart contract accounts.
Near-Instant Cross-Chain Transactions: Arcana Wallet’s architecture allows transactions to execute within seconds, making it one of the fastest cross-chain transaction tools available. Users can spend assets on multiple chains with one-click transactions, benefiting from improved liquidity and usability. Expanding dApp and Chain Compatibility At its Beta launch, Arcana Wallet supports popular dApps, including Uniswap, Aave, Polymarket, Hyperliquid, and Jumper, with compatibility for additional applications and chains on the horizon. From currently supporting Ethereum, Base, Polygon, Optimism, and Arbitrum, the protocol aims to scale support to +20 EVM and non-EVM L1s, L2s, and appchains. Allowing users to manage funds from any of the integrated networks, it will mark a significant step toward a unified blockchain ecosystem. Arcana’s Chain Abstraction SDK To cater the developer community, Arcana Network is also launching the Chain Abstraction SDK, enabling developers to implement Arcana’s Chain Abstraction features in their own dApps. The SDK is intended to provide a versatile toolkit for developers to build chainless user experiences and simplify blockchain interactions for end users, helping to grow Arcana’s vision of a unified Web3 UX. Joining the Arcana Community As the Arcana Wallet Beta moves through its Testnet phase, feedback from users and partners will help shape the next generation of blockchain interactions. Users can download Arcana Wallet from the Chrome Store and experience the power of Chain Abstraction: Arcana Wallet Chrome Store About Arcana Network Arcana Network is a leading Chain Abstraction Protocol, powered by an Appchain, with the mission to transform the Web3 UX. Since its inception in 2021, Arcana Network has introduced products that make web3 effortless, with more than 4 million wallets generated, 500,000 active users, and 6 million transactions to date. The upcoming Chain Abstraction Protocol built on a Cosmos Appchain and powered by $XAR, is the next evolution in simplifying Web3. $XAR is the utility token that captures protocol fees, secures the network, incentivises early adopters, and rewards resource providers. Arcana Network’s innovative technology is backed by prominent investors, including Balaji S., Polygon founders, John Lilic, Santiago Roel, and investment funds such as Woodstock, Fenbushi, Republic, Polygon Ventures, DCG, LD Capital and others. Website | Twitter | Telegram | YouTube Contact Marketing Manager Andria Efstathiou Arcana Network andria@arcana.network This story was distributed as a release by Chainwire under HackerNoon’s Business Blogging Program. Learn more about the program here DUBAI, United Arab Emirates, November 21st, 2024/Chainwire/--Arcana Network is thrilled to announce the launch of the Arcana Wallet Beta, now available on the Chrome Store, setting a new standard in blockchain accessibility and user experience through its pioneering Chain Abstraction Protocol. DUBAI, United Arab Emirates, November 21st, 2024/Chainwire/--Arcana Network Built as the first Externally Owned Account (EOA) wallet to leverage Chain Abstraction, Arcana Wallet enables a frictionless, multi-chain experience where users can spend assets across Ethereum, Base, Polygon, Arbitrum, and Optimism seamlessly, with 20+ new chains coming soon. The Chrome Extension wallet is available at www.arcana.network/wallet www.arcana.network/wallet www.arcana.network/wallet Unified Balance: Spend Your Assets Held Across Chains, in 1-click, Without Bridging Arcana Wallet offers a range of features designed to eliminate fragmentation and provide users with streamlined access to decentralized finance. Through Arcana’s Chain Abstraction protocol, users can now manage their aggregated USDC, USDT, and ETH balances across multiple networks, all in a single wallet interface, and spend these funds instantly on any supported chain without the need for bridging. “At Arcana, our goal is to reimagine blockchain usability by abstracting the complexities that come with multi-chain interactions. Arcana Wallet delivers an intuitive and effortless experience that allows users to engage with dApps across chains, without technical barriers” said Mayur Relekar, Founder & CEO of Arcana Network. “At Arcana, our goal is to reimagine blockchain usability by abstracting the complexities that come with multi-chain interactions. Arcana Wallet delivers an intuitive and effortless experience that allows users to engage with dApps across chains, without technical barriers” said Mayur Relekar, Founder & CEO of Arcana Network. Key Features of Arcana Wallet Unified Balances: Arcana Wallet aggregates assets into a single balance across supported chains, allowing seamless spending without bridging. For example, users holding USDT on Arbitrum and Optimism see a combined balance ready to spend on Polygon or Base. EOA Wallet-Based Orchestration: Users can bring their existing EOA address or create a new one, ensuring self-custody. Funds stay in the user’s wallet, without locking up or requiring deposits to another address, maintaining asset security and cross-app accessibility. Universal Address Accessibility: Unlike wallets needing app-specific setups, Arcana Wallet retains assets within one wallet, making them accessible across all apps—even those without native chain abstraction support. Efficient Gas Payments: Gas fees can be auto-funded in stablecoins (USDT or USDC), eliminating the need to hold native tokens on each chain. Arcana’s optimised protocol keeps gas fees up to 10X lower than traditional solutions that use smart contract accounts. Near-Instant Cross-Chain Transactions: Arcana Wallet’s architecture allows transactions to execute within seconds, making it one of the fastest cross-chain transaction tools available. Users can spend assets on multiple chains with one-click transactions, benefiting from improved liquidity and usability. Unified Balances: Arcana Wallet aggregates assets into a single balance across supported chains, allowing seamless spending without bridging. For example, users holding USDT on Arbitrum and Optimism see a combined balance ready to spend on Polygon or Base. EOA Wallet-Based Orchestration: Users can bring their existing EOA address or create a new one, ensuring self-custody. Funds stay in the user’s wallet, without locking up or requiring deposits to another address, maintaining asset security and cross-app accessibility. Universal Address Accessibility: Unlike wallets needing app-specific setups, Arcana Wallet retains assets within one wallet, making them accessible across all apps—even those without native chain abstraction support. Efficient Gas Payments: Gas fees can be auto-funded in stablecoins (USDT or USDC), eliminating the need to hold native tokens on each chain. Arcana’s optimised protocol keeps gas fees up to 10X lower than traditional solutions that use smart contract accounts. Near-Instant Cross-Chain Transactions: Arcana Wallet’s architecture allows transactions to execute within seconds, making it one of the fastest cross-chain transaction tools available. Users can spend assets on multiple chains with one-click transactions, benefiting from improved liquidity and usability. Expanding dApp and Chain Compatibility At its Beta launch, Arcana Wallet supports popular dApps, including Uniswap, Aave, Polymarket, Hyperliquid, and Jumper, with compatibility for additional applications and chains on the horizon. From currently supporting Ethereum, Base, Polygon, Optimism, and Arbitrum, the protocol aims to scale support to +20 EVM and non-EVM L1s, L2s, and appchains. Allowing users to manage funds from any of the integrated networks, it will mark a significant step toward a unified blockchain ecosystem. Arcana’s Chain Abstraction SDK To cater the developer community, Arcana Network is also launching the Chain Abstraction SDK, enabling developers to implement Arcana’s Chain Abstraction features in their own dApps. The SDK is intended to provide a versatile toolkit for developers to build chainless user experiences and simplify blockchain interactions for end users, helping to grow Arcana’s vision of a unified Web3 UX. Joining the Arcana Community As the Arcana Wallet Beta moves through its Testnet phase, feedback from users and partners will help shape the next generation of blockchain interactions. Users can download Arcana Wallet from the Chrome Store and experience the power of Chain Abstraction: Arcana Wallet Chrome Store Arcana Wallet Chrome Store Arcana Wallet Chrome Store About Arcana Network Arcana Network is a leading Chain Abstraction Protocol, powered by an Appchain, with the mission to transform the Web3 UX. Arcana Network Arcana Network Since its inception in 2021, Arcana Network has introduced products that make web3 effortless, with more than 4 million wallets generated, 500,000 active users, and 6 million transactions to date. The upcoming Chain Abstraction Protocol built on a Cosmos Appchain and powered by $XAR, is the next evolution in simplifying Web3. $XAR is the utility token that captures protocol fees, secures the network, incentivises early adopters, and rewards resource providers. Arcana Network’s innovative technology is backed by prominent investors, including Balaji S., Polygon founders, John Lilic, Santiago Roel, and investment funds such as Woodstock, Fenbushi, Republic, Polygon Ventures, DCG, LD Capital and others. Website | Twitter | Telegram | YouTube Website Website Twitter Twitter Telegram Telegram YouTube YouTube Contact Marketing Manager Andria Efstathiou Arcana Network andria@arcana.network This story was distributed as a release by Chainwire under HackerNoon’s Business Blogging Program. Learn more about the program here This story was distributed as a release by Chainwire under HackerNoon’s Business Blogging Program. Learn more about the program here here here

Arcana Network Launches Chain Abstraction Wallet, Ushers In a New Era Of Multi-Chain Transactions

Arcana Network stel Chain Abstraction Wallet bekend, lei 'n nuwe era van multi-kettingtransaksies in

Arcana Network führt Chain Abstraction Wallet ein und läutet eine neue Ära von Multi-Chain-Transaktionen ein

Arcana Network lanza una billetera Chain Abstraction que marca el comienzo de una nueva era de transacciones multicadena

Arcana Network lanseeraa Chain Abstraction Walletin, joka aloittaa moniketjuisten transaktioiden uuden aikakauden

Arcana Network lancia il portafoglio Chain Abstraction, inaugurando una nuova era di transazioni multi-catena

アルカナネットワークがチェーン抽象化ウォレットをリリース、マルチチェーン取引の新時代を先導

Arcana желісі көп тізбекті транзакциялардың жаңа дәуірін бастайтын тізбекті абстракциялық әмиянды іске қосады

Arcana Network запускает кошелек Chain Abstraction, открывая новую эру многоцепочечных транзакций

Rrjeti Arcana lançon portofolin e abstraksionit zinxhir, fut në një epokë të re të transaksioneve me shumë zinxhirë

ኣርካና ኔትወርክ ሰንሰለታዊ ኣብስትራክሽን ቦርሳ ኣበጊሱ፣ ሓድሽ ዘመን ናይ ብዙሕ ሰንሰለታዊ ትራንዛክሽን ኣበጊሱ

Arcana Network zanjirli abstraksiya hamyonini ishga tushirdi va ko'p zanjirli tranzaktsiyalarning yangi davrini boshlab beradi.

Arcana Network 推出 Chain Abstraction 钱包，开启多链交易新时代

A unified ecosystem with convenient asset transfer between networks is an ideal the crypto space has been chasing for a long time. However, because blockchains have varying token standards and consensus mechanisms, this feat is (currently) only achievable via bridges. The path to Bitcoin (BTC) on Ethereum, Ether (ETH) on the Binance Smart Chain (BSC), Solana (SOL) on Ethereum, and so on runs through a bridge. At the time of writing, DeFiLlama estimated the total value locked (TVL) across all bridges at around $27.79 billion. These are good numbers. But when put in context, they highlight that perhaps, despite the widespread desire for an interoperable crypto ecosystem, bridges are not as widely utilized. Out of the $2.5 trillion of value in the crypto market, only about 0.01% is utilized across chains. This is an indication that not many crypto users are utilizing bridges. And according to Sher, CEO of Zecrey Labs (the team behind Kontos Protocol), a big part of this is down to the user experience. The solution, he says, lies in bridge abstraction. The ABCs of Bridging Crypto Assets The crypto space is not known for its user experience. Blockchain-based applications are typically more complicated to set up and use than regular apps, something that the average crypto bridge takes to the extreme. “The blockchain industry is often perceived as complex and difficult to navigate, especially for newcomers. Managing multiple wallets, handling private keys, and understanding gas fees can be daunting for users,” says Sher. It's not known exactly how many people use crypto bridges. What is known, however, is that for most users, the experience is anything but convenient. Crypto bridges tend to have unintuitive interfaces, with users often required to go through several steps to complete a bridge operation, which can take anywhere from a few minutes to several hours and attract significant fees. At the same time, the bridging scene is itself fragmented. Many bridging protocols only support a limited set of assets and blockchain pairs. “This means that currently, there are numerous bridges for different blockchain pairs, each with its own protocols and interface. Thus, users are regularly forced to use multiple bridges to get their assets on the target chain,” says Sher. When someone wants to interact with a chain like Avalanche, they typically need to address two aspects: Gas fees: They need to bridge AVAX tokens to Avalanche to pay for transaction fees (gas) on the network.


Other assets: They may also want to bridge other assets, such as stablecoins like USDT, to use within the Avalanche ecosystem. This dual requirement often means users must perform multiple bridging operations or use a service that can handle both aspects in a streamlined manner. The complexity of this process can be a barrier for some users, highlighting the need for more user-friendly bridging solutions. This is where bridge abstraction comes into play. What Is Bridge Abstraction? “The Bridge Abstraction Layer (BAL) is a structural design pattern that separates the abstraction (interface) from the implementation (underlying mechanics),” says Sher. “This decoupling allows for greater flexibility and independent development of both components.” Bridge abstraction builds on the concept of chain abstraction, where the aim is to hide the complexities of interacting with blockchains from the end user. When the user isn’t dealing with the specific details of underlying protocols, traditionally complex operations like cross-chain trading and asset transfer become straightforward. Abstraction essentially lets developers build cross-chain solutions without being tied to specific implementation details. According to Sher,  this translates to lesser involvement from the user during a bridging operation, as seen in Kontos’ design, which allows users to bridge across multiple chains via a single interface. Kontos is designed around the user’s intent. If someone intends to get tokens on a particular chain, they can do so using any assets they have on any chain(s). This is possible because the protocol lets users combine assets from various chains and move them to the target chain. It uses smart contracts and a network of participants to handle the complexities of gas estimation and payment behind the scenes. “Kontos' approach to gas abstraction represents a significant innovation in improving blockchain usability,” says Sher. ”By tackling this complex problem, Kontos is addressing one of the major pain points in blockchain interaction, potentially setting a new standard for user experience in the multi-chain ecosystem.” A New Standard for On-chain User Experience Bridge abstraction is a significant leap forward in simplifying interactions across blockchain networks. Users typically had to navigate complex processes when bridging assets, ensuring they had enough gas tokens on the source chain, selecting both the source and target chains, and managing specific assets across networks. With bridge abstraction, these barriers are minimized. Bridging no longer requires holding gas tokens on the source chain or keeping track of which chain assets are located. Instead, utilizing assets from multiple chains in a single task is possible. The system will calculate and optimize costs behind the scenes. This evolution promises a smoother, more intuitive on-chain experience that allows users to focus on their transactions rather than the intricacies of blockchain mechanics. It sets a new standard for blockchain accessibility and usability, paving the way for a more inclusive and user-friendly web3 ecosystem. A unified ecosystem with convenient asset transfer between networks is an ideal the crypto space has been chasing for a long time. However, because blockchains have varying token standards and consensus mechanisms, this feat is (currently) only achievable via bridges. A unified ecosystem with convenient asset transfer between networks is an ideal the crypto space has been chasing for a long time. However, because blockchains have varying token standards and consensus mechanisms, this feat is (currently) only achievable via bridges. The path to Bitcoin (BTC) on Ethereum, Ether (ETH) on the Binance Smart Chain (BSC), Solana (SOL) on Ethereum, and so on runs through a bridge. At the time of writing, DeFiLlama estimated the total value locked (TVL) across all bridges at around $27.79 billion. DeFiLlama DeFiLlama These are good numbers. But when put in context, they highlight that perhaps, despite the widespread desire for an interoperable crypto ecosystem, bridges are not as widely utilized. Out of the $2.5 trillion of value in the crypto market, only about 0.01% is utilized across chains. $2.5 trillion of value $2.5 trillion of value This is an indication that not many crypto users are utilizing bridges. And according to Sher, CEO of Zecrey Labs (the team behind Kontos Protocol ) , a big part of this is down to the user experience. The solution, he says, lies in bridge abstraction. Zecrey Labs Zecrey Labs Kontos Protoc ol Kontos Protoc , The ABCs of Bridging Crypto Assets The crypto space is not known for its user experience. Blockchain-based applications are typically more complicated to set up and use than regular apps, something that the average crypto bridge takes to the extreme. “The blockchain industry is often perceived as complex and difficult to navigate, especially for newcomers. Managing multiple wallets, handling private keys, and understanding gas fees can be daunting for users,” says Sher. says Sher. It's not known exactly how many people use crypto bridges. What is known, however, is that for most users, the experience is anything but convenient. Crypto bridges tend to have unintuitive interfaces, with users often required to go through several steps to complete a bridge operation, which can take anywhere from a few minutes to several hours and attract significant fees. At the same time, the bridging scene is itself fragmented. Many bridging protocols only support a limited set of assets and blockchain pairs. “This means that currently, there are numerous bridges for different blockchain pairs, each with its own protocols and interface. Thus, users are regularly forced to use multiple bridges to get their assets on the target chain,” says Sher. says Sher. When someone wants to interact with a chain like Avalanche, they typically need to address two aspects: Gas fees: They need to bridge AVAX tokens to Avalanche to pay for transaction fees (gas) on the network. Other assets: They may also want to bridge other assets, such as stablecoins like USDT, to use within the Avalanche ecosystem. Gas fees: They need to bridge AVAX tokens to Avalanche to pay for transaction fees (gas) on the network. Gas fees: They need to bridge AVAX tokens to Avalanche to pay for transaction fees (gas) on the network. Other assets: They may also want to bridge other assets, such as stablecoins like USDT, to use within the Avalanche ecosystem. Other assets: They may also want to bridge other assets, such as stablecoins like USDT, to use within the Avalanche ecosystem. This dual requirement often means users must perform multiple bridging operations or use a service that can handle both aspects in a streamlined manner. The complexity of this process can be a barrier for some users, highlighting the need for more user-friendly bridging solutions. This is where bridge abstraction comes into play. What Is Bridge Abstraction? “The Bridge Abstraction Layer (BAL) is a structural design pattern that separates the abstraction (interface) from the implementation (underlying mechanics),” says Sher. “This decoupling allows for greater flexibility and independent development of both components.” says Sher. Bridge abstraction builds on the concept of chain abstraction, where the aim is to hide the complexities of interacting with blockchains from the end user. When the user isn’t dealing with the specific details of underlying protocols, traditionally complex operations like cross-chain trading and asset transfer become straightforward. Abstraction essentially lets developers build cross-chain solutions without being tied to specific implementation details. According to Sher, this translates to lesser involvement from the user during a bridging operation, as seen in Kontos’ design, which allows users to bridge across multiple chains via a single interface. Sher, Kontos is designed around the user’s intent. If someone intends to get tokens on a particular chain, they can do so using any assets they have on any chain(s). This is possible because the protocol lets users combine assets from various chains and move them to the target chain. It uses smart contracts and a network of participants to handle the complexities of gas estimation and payment behind the scenes. “Kontos' approach to gas abstraction represents a significant innovation in improving blockchain usability,” says Sher. ”By tackling this complex problem, Kontos is addressing one of the major pain points in blockchain interaction, potentially setting a new standard for user experience in the multi-chain ecosystem.” says Sher. A New Standard for On-chain User Experience Bridge abstraction is a significant leap forward in simplifying interactions across blockchain networks. Users typically had to navigate complex processes when bridging assets, ensuring they had enough gas tokens on the source chain, selecting both the source and target chains, and managing specific assets across networks. With bridge abstraction, these barriers are minimized. Bridging no longer requires holding gas tokens on the source chain or keeping track of which chain assets are located. Instead, utilizing assets from multiple chains in a single task is possible. The system will calculate and optimize costs behind the scenes. This evolution promises a smoother, more intuitive on-chain experience that allows users to focus on their transactions rather than the intricacies of blockchain mechanics. It sets a new standard for blockchain accessibility and usability, paving the way for a more inclusive and user-friendly web3 ecosystem.

Bridge Abstraction - The Key to Unlocking True Blockchain Interoperability

Authors:
(1) Halil Yigit Oksuz, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany;
(2) Fabio Molinari, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany;
(3) Henning Sprekeler, Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany and Modelling Cognitive Processes Group at Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Germany;
(4) Jorg Raisch, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany. Table of Links Abstract and Introduction Problem Setup Federated fair over-the-air learning (FedAir) Algorithm Convergence Properties Numerical Example Conclusion and References Abstract Over-the-Air Computation is a beyond-5G communication strategy that has recently been shown to be useful for the decentralized training of machine learning models due to its efficiency. In this paper, we propose an Over-the-Air federated learning algorithm that aims to provide fairness and robustness through minmax optimization. By using the epigraph form of the problem at hand, we show that the proposed algorithm converges to the optimal solution of the minmax problem. Moreover, the proposed approach does not require reconstructing channel coefficients by complex encoding decoding schemes as opposed to state-of-the-art approaches. This improves both efficiency and privacy. I. INTRODUCTION For large-scale systems, where information exchange and cooperation are vital, one critical challenge for the averaging based federated learning algorithms is heterogeneity [8]– [10]. When the data is heterogeneous, i.e., the fact that agents observe data from different distributions, the parameter vectors minimizing the local cost functions will in general vary significantly between different agents, and minimizing the cost function (2) may not be desirable. Instead, using a worst-case optimization problem may reflect practical requirements more accurately. Another problem that we encounter in large-scale networks is that the communication load on the overall system increases with the number of agents [11]–[14]. When multiple agents transmit information at the same time and in the same frequency band, signals are affected by the physical phenomenon of interference. Standard communication protocols[1] prevent interference by transmitting signals orthogonally. However, these techniques are not resource-efficient in the sense that they increase the need for bandwidth or the number of communication rounds, which in general leads to a decrease in total throughput and efficiency [15], [16]. In this paper, we present a federated learning algorithm that aims to improve the performance of the worst performing agent in the system, thus providing fairness and robustness against heterogeneity. We leverage a beyond-5G communication strategy, called Over-the-Air Computation, which is more efficient as the number of agents grows [16]. Unlike the existing literature on Over-the-Air computation, e.g, [8], [17], the proposed algorithm can operate despite the inherently unknown nature of channel coefficients. We do not assume any knowledge of (nor the capability to reconstruct) channel coefficients, and therefore we will not need extra preprocessing efforts to reconstruct the channel, which makes the proposed scheme more time and resource efficient. Moreover, since the channel coefficients are completely unknown, privacy is inherently guaranteed, as discussed in [18]. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: we present the problem setup in Section II. In Section III, we introduce the proposed algorithm, whose convergence analysis is presented in Section IV. A numerical example is presented in Section V. Concluding remarks are given in Section VI. This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 DEED license. [1] In TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), agents are assigned different time slots when they can transmit, whereas in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), different frequency bands are allocated to different users. Authors: (1) Halil Yigit Oksuz, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany; (2) Fabio Molinari, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany; (3) Henning Sprekeler, Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany and Modelling Cognitive Processes Group at Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Germany; (4) Jorg Raisch, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany. Authors: Authors: (1) Halil Yigit Oksuz, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany; (2) Fabio Molinari, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany; (3) Henning Sprekeler, Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany and Modelling Cognitive Processes Group at Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Germany; (4) Jorg Raisch, Control Systems Group at Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany and Exzellenzcluster Science of Intelligence, Technische Universitat Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587, Berlin, Germany. Table of Links Abstract and Introduction Abstract and Introduction Problem Setup Problem Setup Federated fair over-the-air learning (FedAir) Algorithm Federated fair over-the-air learning (FedAir) Algorithm Convergence Properties Convergence Properties Numerical Example Numerical Example Conclusion and References Conclusion and References Abstract Over-the-Air Computation is a beyond-5G communication strategy that has recently been shown to be useful for the decentralized training of machine learning models due to its efficiency. In this paper, we propose an Over-the-Air federated learning algorithm that aims to provide fairness and robustness through minmax optimization. By using the epigraph form of the problem at hand, we show that the proposed algorithm converges to the optimal solution of the minmax problem. Moreover, the proposed approach does not require reconstructing channel coefficients by complex encoding decoding schemes as opposed to state-of-the-art approaches. This improves both efficiency and privacy. I. INTRODUCTION For large-scale systems, where information exchange and cooperation are vital, one critical challenge for the averaging based federated learning algorithms is heterogeneity [8]– [10]. When the data is heterogeneous, i.e., the fact that agents observe data from different distributions, the parameter vectors minimizing the local cost functions will in general vary significantly between different agents, and minimizing the cost function (2) may not be desirable. Instead, using a worst-case optimization problem may reflect practical requirements more accurately. Another problem that we encounter in large-scale networks is that the communication load on the overall system increases with the number of agents [11]–[14]. When multiple agents transmit information at the same time and in the same frequency band, signals are affected by the physical phenomenon of interference. Standard communication protocols[1] prevent interference by transmitting signals orthogonally. However, these techniques are not resource-efficient in the sense that they increase the need for bandwidth or the number of communication rounds, which in general leads to a decrease in total throughput and efficiency [15], [16]. In this paper, we present a federated learning algorithm that aims to improve the performance of the worst performing agent in the system, thus providing fairness and robustness against heterogeneity. We leverage a beyond-5G communication strategy, called Over-the-Air Computation, which is more efficient as the number of agents grows [16]. Unlike the existing literature on Over-the-Air computation, e.g, [8], [17], the proposed algorithm can operate despite the inherently unknown nature of channel coefficients. We do not assume any knowledge of (nor the capability to reconstruct) channel coefficients, and therefore we will not need extra preprocessing efforts to reconstruct the channel, which makes the proposed scheme more time and resource efficient. Moreover, since the channel coefficients are completely unknown, privacy is inherently guaranteed, as discussed in [18]. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: we present the problem setup in Section II. In Section III, we introduce the proposed algorithm, whose convergence analysis is presented in Section IV. A numerical example is presented in Section V. Concluding remarks are given in Section VI. This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 DEED license. This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 DEED license. available on arxiv [1] In TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), agents are assigned different time slots when they can transmit, whereas in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), different frequency bands are allocated to different users.

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